Was Mercury Posioning the Cause for Isaac Newton’s Madness?

Introduction

Today, many people in their early to mid-20s seek to accomplish graduating college, finding a job or even marriage. For Isaac Newton, his accomplishments looked quite different. By his mid-20s, he had already discovered calculus and the theory of white light. Isaac Newton discovering calculus was controversial due to Gottfried Leibniz publishing his findings first. However, Newton noted that he already had all these findings but had never published them as he was always reluctant to publish due to scrutiny. It is thought that calculus, laws of motion and universal gravitation were all of Newton’s “side” projects. Instead, Newton had a strong passion for alchemy and religion. Newton spent a large part of his life trying to turn metals into gold and attempting to calculate Jesus’s second return to Earth by thoroughly studying the Bible. However, he had to be secretive because for one, alchemy was a punishable act during his time. Newton also was antitrinitarian, rejecting the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as the trinity in the Catholic church. This too was deemed punishable, leading to imprisonment or even execution.

In 1936, economist John Maynard Keynes auctioned off a collection of Isaac Newton’s alchemical writings, which contained over 10,000,000 words from Isaac Newton himself. In these writings, we have greater knowledge of Newton’s studies and even a bit of his personality. In Newton’s alchemy era, Newton wrote about tasting over 100 metals including mercury, arsenic, and lead. Newton described the taste of mercury as “strong, sourish, ungrateful” in his writings. This has opened the question, “Was mercury the cause for Newton’s madness?” Based on what we have read and heard, Newton was known to be secretive, and many describe him as being “off.” For example, a letter written by Newton to famous diarist Samuel Pepys is shared,

“…for I am extremely troubled at the embroilment I am in and have neither ate nor slept well this twelve month, nor have my former consistency of mind. I never designed to get anything by your interest, nor by King James’s favour, but am now sensible that I must withdraw from your acquaintance and see neither you nor the rest of my friends any more…” (Klawans, 1990)

John Locke and Samuel Pepys, friends of Isaac Newton often sensed derangement and loss of memory from Isaac Newton. However, no one knew the cause of his common breakdowns and erratic behavior. Many theorize his mother’s death, exhaustion from his writing of Principia, a mathematical foundation for the theory of classical mechanics,or problems with the Cambridge University – the list goes on. To note, Newton was the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge, which is a prestigious academic position. We can only imagine the stress that this position holds.

To shed light on Newton’s personality, Newton would still perform a lecture even if no students showed up to his class. Newton had his quirks, but where is the line drawn from personality, a mental illness or even mercury poisoning? If Newton did have a mental illness, how can one of the most influential scientists known to exist truly have one? These questions are often asked by many scholars and historians. However, it was later connected that not only Newton had sufficient exposure to mercury and other heavy metals, but also “a clinical picture that is consistent with mercury poisoning, including neurological findings.” (Klawans, 1990) Spargo and Pounds, two researchers, were able to locate several hair strands of Isaac Newton. After testing, they had found straightforward evidence of excessive amounts of mercury.

Reflecting on Newton’s Madness: Further tales of clinical neurology, the signs and symptoms of Newton’s condition were listed as severe insomnia, extreme sensitivity in personal relations, loss of appetite, delusions, memory difficulties and an overall decrease in mental acuity. All these symptoms’ functions are seen in both hemispheres of the brain. Therefore, this is not a disease with a unique location affecting a specific location in the brain. Neurologist William R. Gowers investigated that mercury poisoning often starts with irritability, insomnia, and then maniacal excitement. There are then prominent signs of timidness, loss of self-confidence, and shyness. Many of these symptoms were present in Newton’s case, which will be discussed later.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Let us briefly discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the case of Isaac Newton’s case. First, there is no doubt that Newton had exposure to mercury. We have evidence of Newton’s hair strands that have shown elevated levels of mercury present. When I first read this information, I questioned how do we know this is really Newton’s hair? However, I have trust in researchers and believe Newton’s real hair was tested, but it is still important to point out as some may be skeptical. One disadvantage that is prominent in this case is that Isaac Newton is not alive and when testing his hair strands, it was well beyond the time he had been alive. Therefore, we can only gain an understanding of his life based off letters, Newton’s journals and, “he said, she said.” This is not necessarily bad, and it is not a reason to not accept the findings. However, it can make it difficult to understand Newton himself. People are often quick to conclude that his erratic behavior and other neurological problems are because of mercury poisoning. Can we conclude the cause and effect of mercury poisoning and Newton’s behavior throughout his life? Even without having evaluated Newton first-hand? It is important to learn that had dealt with being quarantined during the Great Plague of London resulting in him being isolated for two years, experiencing his mother’s passing and a great deal of pressure from Cambridge University and King Charles II throughout his life. It may be easy to overlook the kind of life Newton experienced as it was a different time than our world today. At the end of the day, it is evident that Newton had mercury poisoning with excessive amounts of mercury in his hair strands. However, quickly relating Newton’s personality to mercury poisoning may not be an accurate conclusion; as he potentially could have had an underlying mental illness such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. It may be easy to jump down the rabbit hole but remember that it may not always be what it seems.

As there are disadvantages, there are still many advantages to this case regarding Newton. First, it helps spread awareness of the danger that mercury poisoning poses. Many people today are exposed to mercury in their workplace, labs or simply through our everyday environment. Since Newton’s time, we have gained a better understanding of mercury poisoning, but still lack accurate knowledge of its effects. Second, the use of history and the importance of preservation for this case is significant. It has allowed researchers to lay the cards on the table and understand the case from different perspectives. This too can allow researchers to further investigate findings, learn from comparing cases in our modern day and come together to further knowledge of mercury poisoning.

Newton and Mental Illness
It is important to discuss schizophrenia and bipolar disorder as they are both prominent topics when Newton is brought into conversation in an academic setting. First, schizophrenia is a chronic brain disorder. Many symptoms include states of psychosis, delusions, disorganized speech, and abnormal motor behavior. The state of psychosis is described as a loss of touch with reality. One experiencing psychosis may have trouble understanding what is real and what is not. This may explain how Newton assumes the worst from his acquaintances, often forgets what they were writing to each other and why he separates himself from the reality of the world. Also, this ties into Newton’s deluded mind that was evident in the letters that Newton had written to others. In delusion, you often are paranoid and believe that you are being ridiculed by another individual or group. Newton being secretive and hesitating to publish his work could elude that he experiences delusions, or he genuinely wanted to be private. There is evidence that Newton experienced tremors, which are involuntary shaking or trembling movement. It is shown throughout his handwriting. Those experiencing schizophrenia tend to have movements that are unpredictable or repeated movements for no reason. However, we cannot conclude all this information connecting that Newton may have had schizophrenia, it is a theory. There is value in sharing and exploring alternative theories and perspectives.

Bipolar disorder, also known as manic depression, is a condition that causes heightened mood swings. Those with bipolar disorder experience episodes of highs and lows of mood. These episodes can occur multiple times a year and last prolonged periods of time. One with bipolar disorder may experience being more agitated or energetic than usual, being too self-confident and needing less sleep than usual. One experiencing mania may also make poor decisions, such as involving yourself in a dangerous activity or separating yourself from friends, which is what we see in Newton’s case. One the other hand, one may also experience a depressive episode, known as hypomania. These share symptoms with mania, such as sleeping too little, feeling restless and not eating. However, you may also be unmotivated, have a challenging time concentrating or feel no pleasure. In Newton’s case, it is hard to imagine with such accomplishments that he had a challenging time with motivation or concentration. Yet, it is still important to bring awareness that Newton could have been experiencing bipolar disorder. Once again, it is important to shed light on alternative theories, ideas, and perspectives as it allows the reader to see a larger picture. If we could sit down with Newton today and provide him with a clinical diagnosis, we may have a different picture.

“Strong, Sourish, Ungrateful”

Mercury is a natural element that exists within our everyday environment. Additionally, it is found in thermometers, barometers, and other scientific instruments because of its rate of expansion works effectively for those to make observations in a temperature range. However, due to the risk of breakage of such objects containing mercury, it can be hazardous to be exposed to elemental mercury through inhalation. In 2012, a phase-out process took place to stop the use of mercury-in-glass thermometers. Additionally, it can be found in batteries, electrical equipment, and even dental fillings. Mercury poisoning is rare, in fact, fewer than 50,000 people in the United States have this disease. Those who have encountered mercury are at risk for mercury poisoning. However, symptoms vary due to the amount one has been exposed to or if it was elemental vs. organic mercury. Symptoms include tremors, insomnia, and memory loss, which are the same symptoms Newton had shown according to his acquaintances and even his own writings. Newton wrote,

“…so that when I wrote to youI had not slept an hour a night for a fortnight together and for five nights together not a wink. I remember I wrote to you but what I said of your book I remember not” (Klawans, 1990).

The World Health Organization (WHO) does not state any psychological symptoms that mercury poisoning may cause to arise. However, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) had published an article “Alice’s Mad Hatter & Work-Related Illness,” which spreads awareness on chronic mercury poisoning. If you have watched Alice in Wonderland, you may be aware that the Mad Hatter is a character portrayed as being erratic, agitated or simply “mad as a hatter.” This article states that symptoms such as irritability, shyness, depression, and other neurological symptoms are associated with chronic exposure to mercury. Specifically, during the late 1800s, “Hatters” or known as hat makers commonly showed signs of tremors, slurred speech, irritability, and other neurological symptoms. The symptoms were related to the exposure of mercury that the hat makers encountered in the industry. In fact, hat makers would perform a process called ‘carroting,’ with the purpose of treating animal fur with mercury nitrate. This helped the felt of the hat to be better quality. Earlier, I had shown writing from Newton to an old friend that he must “not see his friends “any longer.” with no given reason. This shows a great deal of depression as he begins to separate himself from society. Also, Newton often hesitated to publish his findings due to criticism. This could explain his irritability and shyness, or he because he truly did not want to publish such discoveries. It is hard to imagine being in Newton’s position as it was a whole different time, and he was such an immaculate genius. He often did his research in private, which could validate shyness. However, from earlier writings and prior to his mother’s passing, Newton seems to have always been reserved. How do we differentiate between true personality vs. a neurological problem?

Mercury poisoning is a rare condition. Yet, there is one case out of three alike in severity that may contribute to this topic and help understand how fatal mercury can be. In 1997, a 48-year-old chemistry professor was admitted into a medical center, she goes by KW. KW was experiencing balance issues, gait, which is the pattern of how a person walks and trouble speaking. Since KW was a chemistry professor, it was known that she handles toxic chemicals and metals. She specifically handled dimethylmercury, and she had reported spilling it on her hand months prior, but it was thought that the glove would have protected her. Dimethylmercury is an organic compound of mercury.  Elemental mercury is dangerous because of the risk of being exposed to inhaling it. However, dimethylmercury is even more dangerous because it can absorb into your skin if you happen to encounter it. Additionally, it is highly lipophilic, “philic” meaning affinity and “lipo” meaning fat. Therefore, it is easy for dimethylmercury to mix with fat tissues within your body. What part of your body contains the highest fat content? The brain. In fact, the brain is approximately 60% fat. Specifically, the myelin sheath, which allows axons to move freely from different areas of the brain. If you were to have mercury poisoning from elemental mercury, your body tends to flush it out naturally from urination. However, there is a difference between removing a toxin from blood vs. fat tissues.

They assisted the patient with chelation therapy, which is a medical procedure that helps remove heavy metals from the body using a chelating agent. The chelating agent will bind to the heavy metal, inactivating its toxic effect and then the is excreted through urination. According to Smith and Doe (1997), “A preliminary laboratory report indicated that the whole-blood mercury concentration was more than 1000 μg (microgram) per liter. The next day, the following laboratory values were reported: whole-blood mercury, 4000 μg per liter. Urinary mercury, 234 μg per liter” (Case Report section, para. 5). The mercury was increasing in her body more than what was able to exit. In fact, her mercury levels at one point were around 16,000 times above the normal limit. In perspective, Atlantic salmon tends to be measured at 0.022 micrograms of mercury per gram of fish. To meet the 1,440 milligrams of mercury, you would have to eat 144,000 pounds of salmon in one sitting to reach what KW was exposed to.

Later, KW passed away 298 days after exposure. An autopsy revealed that high concentrated levels of mercury were found in her frontal lobe. KW also had extreme neuronal loss and gliosis, which is a rapid reproduction in glial cells that support nerve cells within the central nervous system. Gliosis tends to occur after a central nervous system injury. However, glial cells can cause scar tissue that results in neurodegeneration. This results in depression, personality changes, memory loss and more. It was evident that KW experienced gliosis within her cerebellum, which is a part of the brain that controls motor function. This explains why KW had experienced dystaxia, dysmetria and ataxic gait, which are all conditions that affect motor function. Neural loss was prevalent in her visual and auditory cortices, which explains her narrowing field of vision and hearing of white noise. All these symptoms were explained by KW when admitted to the medical center. Remember that 60% of your brain is made up of fat? Well, the amount of mercury found in her brain was 6 times greater than the mercury present in the blood. This case displays the fatality that mercury possesses for those who handle such toxins.

As this case is rare, there are specific populations that are still at risk of mercury poisoning. Those in specific workplaces, labs and other specific environments are aware of the risk mercury imposes. Mercury poisoning can be difficult to diagnose as it does not have specific signs or symptoms. The onset of symptoms varies and can even mimic other diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and more. As stated before, elemental mercury is toxic when inhaled and because of its form, it is not as lipophilic as dimethylmercury. Therefore, treatment varies based on exposure and what form of mercury one was exposed to. Typically, treatment for mercury poisoning consists of IV fluids to promote urination, chelation, like we saw in KW’s case, and something called intramuscular dimercaprol. Dimercaprol is an FDA-approved treatment for toxic elements such as arsenic, gold and in this case, mercury (REMM, Radiation Emergency Medical Management). It is inserted intramuscularly, meaning it is injected into a specific muscle region based on their depth. Dimercaprol helps neutralize mercury’s toxicity hoping to result in eliminating it completely in one’s system.

In the article, Mercury Poisoning by Shawn and Erwin, prognosis varies depending on the level of exposure. Minor symptoms tend to resolve over time. However, neurological symptoms can last for decades or even the rest of one’s life. For children or fetuses, it can lead to death or permanent neurological damage. The earlier one is aware that it is mercury toxicity and receives treatment, the prognosis tends to be a more effective process. That is why it is important to spread awareness on mercury exposure and poisoning, especially for those who handle mercury in their occupation.

In other cases, described in Mercury toxicity: A family case report by Agrawal and Aundhakar, many people report symptoms such as fever, sweats, headache, numbness in limbs, gingival pain (pain in the gums) and more. All symptoms vary case to case, which can make it difficult to diagnose mercury poisoning. One case in specific, a 54-year-old woman admitted herself to the hospital describing the following symptoms: fever, cough, night sweats, weight loss, and extreme pain. She explained that two weeks earlier, her youngest son returned home from school with a putty-like substance. This putty-like substance spilled on the floor of their home. The mother had cleaned and poured the substance down the sink. This substance was determined to be mercury, and the family was exposed through inhalation and dermal contact for the next two weeks. The woman later died on day two of mechanical ventilation.

In another case, a 29-year-old male was admitted to the hospital describing symptoms such as a headache, gingival pain, and numbness in the arms and legs. An electromyography (EMG) was performed, which is a diagnostic test that measures electrical activity in muscles and nerves. An EMG can help determine toxic neuropathy. The patient was later discharged and prescribed gabapentin and vitamin B complex. Alike in another case, a 22-year-old woman was presented to a clinic also describing headache, gingival pain, and numbness in arms and legs. She also underwent an EMG which also was indicative of toxic neuropathy. She was treated with chelation and on day ten of hospitalization, all levels were normal, and symptoms had decreased. Gabapentin and vitamin B complex were also prescribed. This can help give you an insight into the variety of cases of mercury poisoning.

Fish and Mercury

Let us address the question, is eating too much fish toxic to your body? As a fish lover, I often say that I could be satisfied with eating fish every day of my life. However, would it negatively affect my health like experts say? Let’s dive in. According to the article, Mercury poisoning in fisherman working on a pelagic fishing vessel due to excessive tuna consumption, fisherman developed chronic mercury poisoning due to the amount of consumption of tuna he would eat while on the job. The fisherman developed paresthesia, a tingling, burning or numbness sensation on the skin. He also felt pain in both legs. The fisherman’s symptoms had become so severe that he was no longer able to function normally while working at sea. When the fisherman had arrived back to land, he was seen by a specialist in hopes to solve his condition. Later, it was known that for the last two years of his life, he had been consuming tuna for two or more meals per day, every day. After stopping consumption of tuna, the mercury levels in his body had decreased and his overall health had returned to normal.

Although fish is a major source of protein, fatty acids, and vitamin D, it still poses a risk due to the elevated levels of organic mercury. Mercury poisoning can cause various symptoms that affect the central nervous system, such as paresthesia, ataxia, hearing impairment and constricted field of view. These symptoms should sound familiar as they were prevalent in KW’s case as well. Alike with KW’s case, the fisherman was exposed to methylmercury. The general population is exposed to methylmercury when consuming fish. Remember that methylmercury is categorized as organic mercury. The World Health Organization’s (WHO) states that the tolerable intake of mercury is 2μg/kg/day. It was estimated that the fisherman had been consuming over 175μg/kg/day of mercury due to his fish consumption. When it comes to fish consumption, the recommended intake is at least 8 ounces of seafood per week. Eating smaller fish decreases your chances of mercury poisoning as they contain less mercury than larger fish. It also depends on what that fish is consuming. For example, tuna fish prey on smaller fish that have high chances of being contaminated by methylmercury.

Unfortunately, levels of mercury in fish are steadily increasing and this is due to runoff into rivers and oceans, industrially or naturally. The entire process is called bioaccumulation. First, mercury will enter the environment through decay of rock and soil; volcanic eruptions also play a crucial role. Additionally, the burning of coal, oil, wood, and natural gas will release mercury into the air. This then allows the mercury to fall on the ground or in the bodies of water. We can thank the bacteria present in the water for converting mercury into methylmercury! Small organisms then eat the bacteria, smaller fish then eat the organisms, larger fish then eat the smaller fish and then humans eat the fish. There you have it, a flashback into elementary school science class. To conclude, overconsumption of fish can certainly raise concern about being at the risk of mercury poisoning. It is best to follow the WHO’s guidelines and consume the recommended amount. Additionally, for those working at sea, fishing crews should be aware of the danger of mercury poisoning and prepare meals according to the recommended levels. Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding are also advised to intake either no fish at all or a smaller amount than the recommended tolerable intake. This is due to methylmercury being able to pass through the placenta resulting in neurological damage, development issues or even death of the fetus.

Conclusion

Isaac Newton’s madness continues to be debated among many scholars. We may never know the true medical condition(s) that Newton had dealt with. There is no doubt that Newton had strong, evident exposure to mercury. However, we cannot conclude that mercury poisoning alone is what explained his radical behavior. There is still much to learn when understanding the impact that mercury poisoning has on one’s body and mind. Despite Newton’s madness, he continues to be one of the most influential scientists in history. Newton sacrificed much of his life to make an impact on the future of the world and the knowledge we know today.

One must still have chaos in oneself to be able to give birth to a dancing star.

— Friedrich Nietzsche

References

Agrawal, S., & Aundhakar, S. C. (2014). Mercury toxicity: A family case report. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, 8(5), HD01-HD02. Retrieved November 18, 2024. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2014/8571.4355

Ahn, J.-S., Kang, K. W., Kang, W.-Y., Lim, H.-M., Cho, S., Moon, J.-D., & Park, W.-J. (2018). Mercury poisoning in a fisherman working on a pelagic fishing vessel due to excessive tuna consumption. Journal of Occupational Health, 60(1), 89–93. Retrieved November 14, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1539/joh.16-0274-CS

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010, March 4). NIOSH issues new document on safe handling of mercury. CDC Archive. Retrieved November 11, 2024. https://archive.cdc.gov/www_cdc_gov/niosh/updates/upd-03-04-10.html

Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center. (n.d.). Mercury poisoning. National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences. Retrieved November 11, 2024. https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/7021/mercury-poisoning

Haddad, L. M., & Winchester, J. F. (2023). Mercury toxicity. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. Retrieved November 11, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499935/

Houston, M. C. (2010). The role of mercury and cadmium heavy metals in vascular disease, hypertension, coronary heart disease, and myocardial infarction. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 13(2), S128-S133. Retrieved November 18, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2923418/

Klawans, H. L. (1990). Newton’s madness: Further tales of clinical neurology. Harper & Row.

Mayo Clinic. (n.d.). Bipolar disorder: Symptoms and causes. Retrieved November 11, 2024. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bipolar-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20355955

National Center for Biotechnology Information. (n.d.). Mercury. PubChem. Retrieved November 11, 2024. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/element/Mercury#section=Description

Nierenberg, D. W., Nordgren, R. E., Chang, M. B., Siegler, R. W., Blayney, M. B., Hochberg, F., Toribara, T. Y., Cernichiari, E., & Clarkson, T. (1998). Delayed cerebellar disease and death after accidental exposure to dimethylmercury. New England Journal of Medicine, 338(23), 1672–1676. Retrieved November 14, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199806043382305

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.). Dimercaprol. Radiation Emergency Medical Management. Retrieved November 11, 2024. https://remm.hhs.gov/dimercaprol.htm#:~:text=Dimercaprol%20is%20an%20FDA%2Dapproved,mg%2Fkg%20IM%20developing%20reactions

World Health Organization. (n.d.). Mercury and health. Retrieved November 11, 2024. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-and-health#:~:text=Symptoms%20include%20tremors%2C%20insomnia%2C%20memory,or%20more%20for%20several%20years